Psychology Articles Free

Psychology - History

2011-09-21T13:26:00.000-07:00

The discipline of social psychology began in the United States at the dawn of the 20th century. The first published study in this area was an experiment in 1898 by Norman Triplett on the phenomenon of social facilitation. During the 1930s, many Gestalt psychologists, most notably Kurt Lewin, fled to the United States from Nazi Germany. They were instrumental in developing the field as something separate from the behavioral and psychoanalytic schools that were dominant during that time, and social psychology has always maintained the legacy of their interests in perception and cognition. Attitudes and small group phenomena were the most commonly studied topics in this era.

During WWII, social psychologists studied persuasion and propaganda for the U.S. military. After the war, researchers became interested in a variety of social problems, including gender issues and racial prejudice. Most notable, revealing, and contentious of them all were the Stanley Milgram shock experiments on obedience to authority. In the sixties, there was growing interest in new topics, such as cognitive dissonance, bystander intervention, and aggression. By the 1970s, however, social psychology in America had reached a crisis. There was heated debate over the ethics of laboratory experimentation, whether or not attitudes really predicted behavior, and how much science could be done in a cultural context (see Gergen, 1973). This was also the time when a radical situationist approach challenged the relevance of self and personality in psychology.

Social psychology reached maturity in both theory and method during the 1980s and 1990s. Careful ethical standards now regulate research, and greater pluralism and multiculturalism perspectives have emerged. Modern researchers are interested in a many phenomena, but attribution, social cognition, and the self-concept are perhaps the greatest areas of growth in recent years. Social psychologists have also maintained their applied interests with contributions in health and environmental psychology, as well as the psychology of the legal system.

The Pastor and Developmental Psychology

2010-10-01T15:55:00.000-07:00

Psychology generally has been described as a "discipline with a long past but a very short history" (Schlesinger et al., 1976, p.8). This popular aphorism is meant to convey two meanings. Firstly psychological problems date back to antiquity and secondly the subject, in the sense of being an independent academic discipline is a recent development. The discipline is however a collection of subfields. Although each has its unique characteristics and requirements, some are intertwined, interrelated or interwoven, the sum total of which might reasonably be called psychological studies rather than psychology (Dandoff, 1987).

Although many will argue that clinical or counseling psychology should be a must for pastors, it would be farfetched to state that I am sinking in the quick sand of subjectivity to present a case for development psychology "a branch of psychology which examines the biological, social and intellectual development of people from before birth throughout the life-course" (Cambridge Encyclopedia, p.339). A notable strength of developmental psychology is that it cuts across several areas like attachment, educational psychology or Piagetian psychology.

It must be noted that there is a unique relationship between subjects in psychology. This need not mean that they contradict each other. This could be illustrated by using a different example. It is interesting to consider how from each perspective we might view an emotion such as anger. From a biological perspective, one must study the brain circuits that trigger the physical state of being 'red in the face' and 'hot under the cellar'.

Someone working from psychoanalytic perspective might view an outburst as an outlet for unconscious hostility. Another individual working from behavioural perspective might study the facial expressions and body gestures that accompany anger, or determine which external stimuli result in angry responses or aggressive acts. The humanistic perspective might want to understand what it means to experience and express anger from the person's own point of view. Interestingly, the cognitive perspective might study how an angry mood affects our thinking. Someone working from a socio-cultural perspective might explore how anger and its expression vary across cultural groups. It is obvious that the biological, psychoanalytic, behavioural, humanistic, cognitive and socio-cultural perspectives describe and explain anger very differently. They are not necessarily contradictory approaches but six useful ways of looking at the same psychological state. By using all six, one gains a fuller understanding of anger than any single perspective can provide (Myers, 1992). By implication, it is the same with the branches of psychology.

It is imperative to briefly outline the range of psychology to put the discussion in perspective. Experimental psychologists, like many psychologists, rely on scientific methods and experiments to examine behavior. Their research often is conducted in a laboratory. They investigate areas such as sensation, perception, learning, memory and motivation in humans and other animals. Their emphasis is on basic research, that is, knowledge for its own sake without much consideration as to its possible application. Neuropsychological and psychobiological psychologists are interested in biological factors and their effects on behavior. Both neuropsychological and psychobiological psychologists study the brain, nervous system, genes and drugs in relation to behaviour. Neuropsychological psychologists, however, often work hand in hand with physicians to treat disorders related to the nervous system.

Developmental psychologists study the way in which behaviours develop and change during a life span. Often their emphasis is on childhood. Special areas of interest include the development of language, social attachments, emotions, thinking and perception.

Cognitive psychologists study internal mental processes, which include thinking, memory, concept formation, perception, and processing of information. To the cognitive psychologists, behaviour is composed of mental events, internal representations, desires, beliefs and thoughts.

Social psychologists use scientific techniques to examine the effects that people have on one another. They are interested in topics such as co-operation, aggression, affection and group pressure.
Industrial or organizational psychologists generally work with businesses. They are concerned with improving working conditions, raising production rates, and developing decision-making abilities. Many of these I/Q psychologists, as they are called, began their work as experimental psychologists and then became consultants for business or industry.
Educational psychologists study educational systems, methods of teaching, curricula, and other factors influencing the learning process. Their goals are to improve education and to make learning easier and more efficient.

Clinical psychologists focus their efforts on understanding, diagnosing and treating abnormal or deviant behaviours. Efforts are being made to change the law to allow clinical psychologists to prescribe drugs after further training. As the law currently stands, however, prescribing drugs for mental health is still the province of physicians.

Counseling psychologists were traditionally trained to help individuals solve personal, academic or vocational problems that did not stem from serious mental disorders. However, counseling and clinical psychologists often have similar training, and the distinction between the two has become practically nonexistent.

The above notwithstanding, the rest of the discussion presents supportive evidence to the importance of developmental psychology to the pastoral field. Generally in Africa, from the time one is born, one's position in society is to a large degree determined by one's age. We change as we grow older. These changes are noticeable during the early years of infancy and childhood. As each month passes, an infant grows larger and shows dramatic gains in intellectual and social competence.

Children undergo great changes from one year to the next. As they approach adolescence, their physical changes bring them closer to adulthood. Yet, for adolescents, there are new developmental changes. Upon the approach of old age and death, individuals will face yet more changes. Developmental psychology therefore studies age-related changes in human behaviour. It is realistically observed that "psychologists know what to expect at different developmental stages and they learn the extent of human growth and development. When Paul observed that he'd be everything to all men in order to win some to Christ, he was in other words saying that since he understood the developmental stages and appropriate evangelistic principles used to produce results in the corresponding groups.

Although it is categorically stated that God invites mankind to reason with Him in the book of Isaiah, how can one realistically speculate the age group He is referring to? Jean Piaget, trained in zoology, was a keen observer of children and works related to him constitute the most comprehensive body of data and theory on mental development in existence. Although some of his conclusions are under serious scrutiny, he proposed that thinking develops in a fixed sequence of stages in children. Characterized schemata appear in specific times. The accomplishments of each stage build on prior achievements. In explaining development, Piaget emphasized heredity. Social and physical development, he maintained, affect only the timing of specific milestones. During the first twenty-four months, babies make sense of their experiences by seeing, touching, sniffing, tasting and manipulating. In other words, they rely on sensory and meter systems. At the stage before concrete operations (intuitive thought), the child is naturally ego-centric or self-centred. How can an ego-centric child understand what it means to reason together? Since he is self-centred, he tends to see the world largely from his own perspective and finds it extremely difficult to put himself in a position of others or even to understand that other viewpoints exist. It is at this stage that the child delivers monologues. Typically, he neither knows nor cares whether anybody is listening. Superficially, the chatter sometimes sounds like a conversation because children often alternate and talk about related topics.

A detailed study of Piaget's stage theory is imperative because inspite of criticisms levied against some of his conclusions, the individual stages would help one in the pastoral ministry to know what the child needs to know about religion. The stage of formal operations enables the individual to develop the ability to understand abstract logic. The adolescence "are capable of explaining some phenomena through a series of logical hypotheses" (Newman and Newman, 1984, p.9). At this mental stage, questions are contemplated, trying to "make sense of life...identity, social realities, religion and the like" (Davidoff, 1987, p.388).

It is evident from the fore-going that developmental psychology is concerned with "the description, prediction and modification of age-related behaviors during the full life again" (Huffman, Vernon and Williams, 1987, p.301). Some developmental psychologists emphasize specific ages (such as infancy, adolescence or old age) while others concentrate on specific areas such as physical or cognitive development. Cognitive psychology generally studies the higher mental processes (memory, action, and reasoning). Jesus knew that the reason why His followers swelled astronomically high was the food He provided for the five thousand men in a previous meeting. Developmental psychologists have set themselves the task of describing changes and trying to understand their causes as they explore their effects (Bernstein, 1988).

A critical analysis of psychological development assists the pastor to understand why it is difficult for a human being within the infancy, preschool, early childhood/kindergarten/middle childhood and even late childhood categories to fully understand the salvation message. Why did Jesus merely bless the children brought to Him but preached vehemently to the adolescent? As a development psychologist, He understood fully well that it is at the adolescent stage that the individual can either experience genuine conversion or may choose to ignore spiritual conviction.

A relatively recent but very vigorous addition to development psychology is the study of sex difference, particularly under the stimulus of social movements which demand not only equal opportunities but also equality of social roles for the sexes. To demonstrate the unique position of mankind in Christ, Paul observes that "there is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for you are all one in Christ" (Gal. 3:38).
Developmental psychology, in summary, covers infancy, emotional growth, intellectual development, socialization, family structure and even schools (Roe, 1972). This study of "how people change and grow over time" (Wade and Travis, 1987, p.25) is a must for every pastor simply because he has a congregation of people with different ages, temperaments and even abilities. The distribution of talents in Matthew 25 clearly demonstrates that the abilities of people are different and they were given individual responsibilities against their level of development. Since the pastor, a shepherd is expected to respond to the individual and collective need of the congregation, it is incontrovertible that he must be able to look at and respond in all areas and to all ages. In other words, he should be a developmental psychologist.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bernstein, D.A. et al. (1988). Psychology. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Cambridge Encyclopedia (1994). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Davidoff, L. (1987). Introduction to Psychology. 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Book.
Dworertzky, J.P. (1994). Psychology. 5th ed. New York: West Publishing Company.
Muffan, M. Vernon and B. Williams (1987). Psychology in action. New York: John Willey & Sons.
Myers, D.G. (1992). Psychology. New York: Worth Publishers.
Newman, B.M. and P.R. Newman (1984). Development through life: a psychosocial approach.
Illinois: The Dorsay Press.
NIV Study Bible (1995). Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House.
Roe, R.L. (1972). Annual reading in psychology. Connecticut: Dushkin Publishing Company.
Schlesinger, K. et al. (1978). Psychology :a dynamic science. Iowa: Brown Company.
Wade, C. and C. Tavris (1987). Psychology. New York: Harper and New Publishers.

AUTHOR SIGNATURE

Oliver L.T. Harding, who obtained his GCE O & A Levels from the Sierra Leone Grammar School and the Albert Academy respectively, is currently Senior & Acting Librarian of Fourah Bay College, University of Sierra Leone. He is a part time lecturer at the Institute of Library, Information & Communication Studies (INSLICS), Fourah Bay College and the Extension Programme at the Evangelical College of Theology (T.E.C.T) at Hall Street, Brookfields; Vice President of the Sierra Leone Association of Archivists, Librarians & Information Scientists (SLAALIS); a member of the American Theological Library Association (ATLA) and an associate of the Chartered Institute of Library & Information Professionals (CILIP). His certificates, secular and sacred, include: a certificate and diploma from the Freetown Bible Training Centre; an upper second class B.A. Hons. Degree in Modern History (F.B.C.); a post-graduate diploma from the Institute of Library Studies (INSLIBS, F.B.C) a masters degree from the Institute of Library, Information & Communication Studies (INSLICS, F.B.C.) and a masters degree in Biblical Studies from West Africa Theological Seminary, affiliate of the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, where he won the prize for academic excellence as the Best Graduating Student in 2005. Oliver, a writer, musician and theologian, is married (to Francess) with two children (Olivia & Francis).

Thanks Ceroll B. for articles !
ceroll_3427[at]hotmail.com
11.9.2003

Top Psychology Careers

2010-09-29T15:51:00.000-07:00

Psychologists are important professionals in the health service field that plays a major role in providing mental health care to patients in hospitals, clinics or private settings. They use scientific methods to study the human mind and work mainly with people who are mentally ill. They help people find ways of functioning better, for example- guide and train people to handle stress in the workplace.

Psychologists work in many different settings. The primary employment settings are academic (university and college), educational (elementary and secondary schools, business and industry, and other human service settings. There many psychologists who work individually with clients, while other treats patients with a team of professionals.

Nevertheless, over the past few years, specialty areas in psychology have increased drastically, which in turn resulted in offering a wide range of career options. While some fields concentrate on research, there are many others that primarily focus on practical applications of psychological principles. In fact, it won't be wrong to say that today there are many possible career options for psychology professionals. It is one of the most versatile degrees you can earn.

Today there are several areas of specialization in psychology; and within each area, one may select sub-specialties in which to teach, conduct research, be a practitioner, or some combination of these three activities. So, if you have decided to do a major in psychology, but finding difficult to select the specialization, below are a few of the professions in psychology that have a very strong job prospects.

Here are some of the top psychology career options or programs you may consider when you start to plan your career:

Clinical Psychology - Itis one of the single largest employment areas within the field of psychology. Working as a clinical psychologist, your responsibility may generally revolve around reviewing, diagnosing and treating patients suffering from psychological disorders. As a clinical psychologist, you may work in mental health clinics, hospital settings or private practice. So, to become a clinical psychologist, you must have a doctoral-level degree in clinical psychology and these days many states require a minimum of a one-year internship.

Child Psychology - This is one of the many branches of psychology and the most frequently studied specialty areas. This particular branch primarily focuses on the behavior and mind of children from prenatal development through teenage years. It is unique, complex, and differs in terms of the unique perspective a child psychologist take when approaching development. This is one of the few branches of psychology that encompasses a wide range of topics, starting right from the genetic influences on the child behavior to the social pressures on child's mental development.

Industrial & Organizational Psychology- This is yet another important subfield of psychology that basically focuses on workplace behavior and frequently uses different principles of psychology to improve employee productivity and select employees that are best-suited for particular jobs. The most interesting aspect of this psychology is it deeply roots in experimental and differential psychology, and has a number of different sub-areas like personnel psychology, human-computer interaction and human factors. These days, many companies are hiring industrial and organizational psychologists to help refurbish certain aspects of their company.

Forensic Psychology - In the last few years, this has emerged as one of the most preferred psychology careers. As a forensic psychologist, you may require performing duties like scrutinizing insurance claims, investigate child custody disputes, perform child custody evaluations or even investigate suspected child abuse. The career may be filled with extreme challenges, but yet it is an interesting choice providing numerous prospects for career growth.

Today, certainly making career in psychology is gaining more popularity and many students are enrolling in different psychology programs. While salaries can vary from state to state, the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics predicts a faster than average growth for psychologists. Apart from this, the employment of psychologists is also expected to grow at 15 percent from 2006 to 2016, which is faster than the average for all occupations.

Thanks Mary for articles !

Classes to Take in Psychology

2010-09-27T15:48:00.000-07:00

So you've decided to make your career in Psychology? Here are the different psychology classes and courses you need to take to meet your psychology degree requirements.

The preparation for taking a psychology degree begins from before you apply to the different universities for your admission into graduate school. When the graduate admissions committees consider applications for students, they are really interested in students who have taken certain courses while at the undergraduate level.

Typically, students who are given consideration are those who have taken subjects like:

Learning Psychology
Cognitive Psychology
Sensation and Perception
Experimental Psychology
Abnormal Psychology
Physiological Psychology
Developmental Psychology
Research Methodology

They also consider students from a different educational background when the students have taken courses in subjects like Biology, Chemistry, English, Philosophy, Anthropology, Math and Computer Science.
Once you get into a graduate degree program in Psychology, there are some great subjects which you will study.

You will be introduced to General Psychology and the different concepts in psychology which include topics like human development, personality, learning and cognition, emotional disorders and social thought. You will also learn about the different statistical concepts and methods used in psychological research, and also go through the different aspects of research methods used in psychological studies.

Soon, you will be immersing yourself in the different concepts of Industrial or Organizational Psychology where you will learn how to apply the theories of psychology to industrial and social organizations. You will find yourself studying the theories of developmental psychology and learn about the different stages of emotional, social and cognitive development during childhood, adolescence and adulthood.

While studying social psychology, you will learn about human social behavior and the different human attitudes and emotions like aggression, interpersonal relationships, group dynamics, stereotypes, prejudices and the different ethical conflicts faced in psychological research.

For those of you wanting to know more about the process of learning itself, the subject of cognitive learning provides you with the know-how and the tools to understand how knowledge is acquired, how thinking takes place, how we remember things and how all this is practically applied in educational settings.

You will also learn about the different counseling theories, principles, techniques and applications. Interviewing techniques is a subject that will help you develop different techniques for building relationships, interviewing, solving problems and taking decisions with regard to clients. This will prepare you for several real-world situations where you will be interacting with clients on different levels.

Apart from these psychology classes there are several different specialized courses which may differ from school to school. With these basic courses, you will be able to build and create a wonderful career for yourself in the field of Psychology.

Thanks Linda for articles !

What is Psychology?

2010-09-25T15:45:00.000-07:00

Having a good grasp of what psychology is all about is essential for anybody wanting to explore the topic in greater depth. Now this may sound like a really obvious thing to state but psychology is one of those terms that is often banded around without any real consideration as to its actual meaning.

A classic case in point being the usual response you get from people when you tell them that you teach psychology; namely, "I better be careful what I say", or "so do you know what I'm thinking then?" I know I shouldn't but my stock reply to these reactions tends to be "Absolutely" and "Not at all...but then I would say that, wouldn't I"

It's actually a serious point though because there is clearly a great deal of confusion surrounding psychology. Indeed, I've met psychology students coming towards the end of their degree who have admitted that they are still not 100% sure what psychology is!

Psychology Definitions

To help understand the ambiguity surrounding psychology, let's start by taking a look at a couple of definitions.

Psychology is the scientific study of people, the mind and behaviour. It is both a thriving academic discipline and a vital professional practice. (The British Psychological Society) The scientific study of the behavior of individuals and their mental processes. (American Psychological Association)
The common theme across these definitions is that psychology is fundamentally concerned with understanding Behaviour.

So What's The Problem?

Basically, a lack of unity. Within psychology there are multiple and often competing levels of explanation when it comes to understanding behaviour. When you begin studying psychology you quickly realise what a disparate topic area it is, and at times it can almost be overwhelming.

Keep It Simple

Particularly when you're starting out. Just keep hold of the notion that psychology is basically about behaviour. You can't be expected to know all the different ways there are to explain behaviour straight away; but as you are introduced to more and more you'll find that you'll soon be able to place a behavioural explanation within an appropriate psychological framework.

Psyche and Logos

2010-09-23T15:37:00.000-07:00

From two Greek words: psyche, which means the mind or the soul and logos, which means study, the science of Psychology has been studied and defined by many people throughout the ages. Hilgard, Morgan, Silverman, and Schlesinger are just a few.

A careful analysis of their foregoing definitions of psychology reveals common points: Psychology is the scientific study of the behaviors of living organisms; the term behavior must not be solely attributed to man's physical reactions and observable behavior; and thoughts, feelings, and attitudes are also connected to the term behavior.

The primary goals of Psychology are mainly to describe, identify, understand and explain behavior, to know its factors, and to control or change behavior. Psychologists often apply their knowledge and understanding of human behavior to solve issues and help in our society. Different areas of specialization in Psychology are studied to provide better understandings of this science.

Among these are the traditional fields consisting mainly of: Clinical Psychology which deals with the diagnosis, treatment, and evaluation of psychological problems. It also relates to Psychiatry which pertains to more serious problems; Counseling Psychology which deals with administering, storing, and interpreting psychological exams; Educational or School Psychology which deals with students' learning and adjustment; Community Psychology which deals with problems of the aged, prisoners, and other problems in the community.

It also focuses on providing accessible care for these people; Social Psychology which deals with the behavior of man individually and in groups; Industrial or Organizational Psychology which deals with issues of people in the workplace; Personality Psychology which is concerned with the uniqueness of a person; Developmental Psychology which deals with factors affecting human groups; Experimental Psychology which focuses with the basis of scientific research; Physiological Psychology which is concerned with the functions of the brain; and Comparative Psychology which targets the differences of the species.

Aside from these, several branches of Psychology were discovered during the 70's. Forensic Psychology deals with legal, judicial, and correctional systems. Environmental Psychology is primarily concerned about issues relating to the environment. Computer Science, on the other hand, uses computer programming for behavioral analysis. There is also Engineering Psychology which seeks to make the relationship between man and machines; and Psychopharmacology which deals with the relationship of behavior and drugs.

Furthermore, the latest fields of Psychology that were recently developed consist of: Health Psychology which focuses on multidimensional approaches that emphasize lifestyle and health care systems; Sports Psychology which applies psychological principles to improve performance and enjoy participation; Cross-culture Psychology which examines the role of culture in understanding behavior, thoughts, and emotions; and Women Psychology which emphasizes the importance of promoting research and study of women.

Thanks Mary for articles !

You Can Study at Home - Psychology and Counselling

2010-09-22T15:32:00.000-07:00

Introduction - Present Scenario

With the type of hectic life we all are living, the tension related with our work seems to be escalating and leading to frustrations at the end of it. Every next person is addicted or depressed of something. Though the living standards have improved but many people are still not happy and living constant stressful life.

The rise in these types of situations has ultimately shown an increase in demand of psychologists and counselors. In fact in many countries the requirement for psychologists has boomed and expected to boost considerably in coming years.

If we closely study the present scenario, we could easily see that the growth rate for employment as a psychologist is slightly above average than other professions. Besides this, an increase in demand for psychologists and counselors in hospitals, schools, social service agencies, and substance abuse clinics is increasing further.

Thus attaining a degree in psychology and counseling cannot be bad idea. In fact, if an individual is already involved in healthcare sector, earning a degree in psychology can help him move his career to next level. However, it may not be possible for all to get into the university for a regular course, owing to many personal and other financial constraints. Certainly pursuing an online psychology degree or distance learning program from home may be an answer to many problems.

Benefits of Psychology Degree Online

Today there are numerous online universities that offer psychology and counseling degree online. Earning a distance learning degree in psychology is the call of time and has numerous benefits that cannot be ignored. The prime advantage of acquiring an online psychology degree is that one can acquire a degree while staying at home and without attending a regular class. An individual also need not have to leave job to enhance knowledge in the field of psychology.

Various online degrees in psychology can help an individual enhance his or her socialization into the field of psychology through introductory courses and interaction with faculty who are skilled professionals in their field. It provides the prospect to study for a better career without compromising on daily activities. Moreover, students pursuing psychology online degrees can also learn more about the human mind and its biological & cognitive bases. In addition, the another key advantage of psychology degree online is that one can even specialize in any field in psychology like health psychology, clinical psychology, counseling psychology, organizational psychology or school psychology.

Online Universities

Today the availability of online universities offering program in counseling and psychology has increased at phenomenal rate. Consequently one has to be very careful about selecting any of these universities for completing the course. A lot of universities provide the ability to have live chat session with the professors and get help.

Thus it becomes important to examine all the option before enrolling for an online psychology degree. Online degree programs in psychology can be considered as a big asset in career growth and so selecting the college of choice must also meet the affordability factor. An individual must check into the expense of earning a psychology degree online, because at times it may be a good deal cheaper than attending a regular college or university.

In order to gain the other benefit of online psychology degree, one also needs to ensure that he or she is able to adapt to online learning style provided by various universities or colleges. Online learning actually requires an individual have self motivation and discipline to plan study schedule and follow the plan until he or she completes the program.

Summary

A career in psychology is both lucrative and exciting. At present, every job actually involves different aspects of human behavior and most of the time even requires psychological counseling. These days there are many schools, governmental institutions and business organizations that have started offering psychological counseling for their employees.
Certainly, an accredited online psychology degree holds as much respect as a degree obtained through a traditional college setting. Every individual is looking to take benefits of accredited psychology degree and counseling programs while staying at home. It is definitely a convenient solution for today's busy lifestyle.

Psychology For Christian Homeschool Students?

2010-09-14T11:27:00.000-07:00

Type the phrase "Christian Psychology" into a search engine. I just did. Of the first 10 sites listed, 5 condemned psychology as "psycho-heresy," "psychobabble," or "the most deadly form of modernism to ever confront the Church." The other sites accept psychology as an important academic discipline, consistent with a Christian worldview, and worthy of study. The Internet reflects that psychology is one of the most controversial and divisive academic subjects among Christians today.

What does that mean for homeschoolers? Some Christian homeschoolers accept psychology wholesale, some reject it entirely, and some wrestle with which aspects to accept and which to reject. This article suggests that whatever you believe about psychology, the time to address academic psychology is BEFORE your student leaves home for college.
If your student goes to college, there is an excellent chance he/she will take an introductory (at least) psychology course. Most medical schools, liberal arts colleges, seminaries, and teacher's colleges require students to have some exposure to psychology. Psychology is one of the most popular undergraduate majors at public and Christian colleges and universities. College enrollment in psychology courses outpaces every other scientific discipline. Christian students are often ill prepared to confront the criticisms of Christianity and the anti-Christian worldview presented by modern psychology. The material taught in introductory psychology courses WILL challenge their worldview. University level instruction in modern psychology is generally atheistic and humanistic. Psychology departments often are home to the most anti-Christian intellectuals on college campuses. As a group, psychology professors have high levels of agnosticism, skepticism, and atheism. The psychology professor is unlikely to be sympathetic to your child's Christian worldview and may attack their faith as unscientific, irrational, prudish, exploitive, controlling, inhibitive, oppressive, and naïve.
If psychology is fraught with such danger, shouldn't Christian homeschoolers reject it completely? Maybe. But isn't the humble investigation of all of God's creation part of what it means to love God with one's mind? Do Christians, and by extension Christian homeschoolers, have a duty to explore all of God's creation? Does that duty to explore extend to His grandest creation; Mankind? Does that duty extend to Mankind's mind? Though the conflicts between modern psychology and a Christian worldview are many and perilous, it may be a mistake for Christians to completely reject the study of psychology.
The bottom line is this. Beginning with Darwin's Origin of Species, all sciences, including psychology, underwent a transformation. Scientific data were interpreted in ways to exclude supernatural beliefs. Darwinian evolution imposed itself on the Christian understanding of life (biology) and then tried to exclude anything Christian. Darwinian evolution imposed itself on the Christian understanding of Man (psychology) and then tried to exclude anything Christian.
The study of the soul, the mind, the brain, and behavior (psychology) are right and proper for Christian homeschoolers. The goal of Christian education, in biology, physics, theology, chemistry, and in psychology, is to understand God's creation and, in the words of Johannes Kepler, to "think God's thoughts after Him." Christians have a duty to assert the Christian worldview in academia and Christian homeschoolers have an opportunity to lead that effort. The involvement of homeschoolers in the study of psychology is an integral part of that effort.
Now browse your favorite homeschool catalogue. Count the number of biology, physics, history, and chemistry texts (and every other academic discipline) written from a Christian perspective. Lots right? Now count the number of psychology texts. Zero right? This article suggests that the absence of material for Christian homeschoolers to study psychology is a function of those critics referenced in the opening paragraph.
Those who condemn psychology cast their nets too wide. Those on the web and in Christendom who criticize psychology are generally critical of "counseling" psychology. The criticisms may be correct, but psychology is much more than counseling. It is not the purpose of this article to evaluate the criticisms of counseling psychology. Many critics seem to be thoughtful God-fearing Christians. But painting the entire discipline with the same brush used to paint counseling psychology causes many Christians to shy-away from the whole field. The study of the mind, memory, emotions, learning, development, sensation, neurons, and all the other topics that comprise psychology, is right, proper, and important for Christian homeschoolers.

Thanks Linda N. for articles !
linda_245{at}yahoo.com
7.3.2007

The Advantages of Getting an Online Psychology Degree

2010-09-12T11:19:00.000-07:00

If you are a professional in human resources, counseling, social work, market research, advertising, sales or any job fields which need a lot of interaction with people and you need to enhance your psychology background in order to do a better job or enhance your job professionalism, a degree in psychology definitely can help you to achieve your goal.

But, you may not want to on hold your current job in order to go back to college or university to earn your psychology degree. Then, you need to look for online psychology degree. The advantages of acquiring an online psychology degree is that you can acquire a degree in psychology without attending a regular class, you need not leave your job to enhance your knowledge in the field of psychology. You can even specialize in any field in psychology.

Advantages of Having a Degree in Psychology

Success in many jobs depends largely upon you, the worker, being successful in understanding, relating to, and working with, people. Thus, a psychology degree will enable you to start out with an above-average interest in people. After all, the understanding of human behavior has been one of the major goals of psychology for a long time. As a psychology degree holder you know something about people and you know how to interact with them. These are characteristics that employers value.

Online Psychology Degree Programs

As the online degree programs increase in popularity, there are many prestigious colleges and universities offer online psychology programs taught by the same faculty who teach in their classrooms. And psychology degree offers through online range from Bachelor to MBAs and Ph.Ds. Like the transitional degree, earning a degree online also has pre-requirement and it varies from one online university to another. For example, you can acquire a master's degree or doctorate online in psychology if you have a high school diploma or GED with age of 22 years or above and have worked in the field as a fulltime employee. In general, good in written communication skills are needed as online degree program need to do a lot of reading and writing.

Earn Your Psychology Degree Online

Since the introduction of online degree programs, the working or busy people can earn their degree online without the need to stop the current job or work. Various online degrees in psychology will help you to enhance your socialization into the field of psychology through foundational courses and interaction with faculty who are expert professionals in their field. There are many majors in online psychology which you can choose from, you can specialize in fields like clinical psychology, counseling psychology, general psychology, health psychology, organizational psychology or school psychology.

Summary

The online degree in psychology offers the flexibility to deepen your knowledge in psychology without the need to sacrifice you current work or life style.

What Is Forensic Psychology?

2010-09-10T11:14:00.000-07:00

When my students arrived for their first lecture, I would always start by giving them 10 minutes to write down an answer to this question.

Before reading on, why not quickly write down what you think forensic psychology is.

The reason I did this was because despite the fact that every single undergraduate psychology student (about 180 of them) chose to do the forensic psychology course form a list of optional courses; not one of them came to see me in advance to ask what the course was about.

Now bear in mind students chose their optional courses well in advance of the start date, and in order to make an informed choice they were all strongly advised to speak to the lecturer running the courses they were interested in before making a final decision.

So why the no show?

I suspect, actually I know because I discussed it with the students afterwards, that they didn't feel they had to find out what forensic psychology is, because they already had a preconceived idea.
I mentioned that at the start of the first lecture I would give students 10 minutes to write down an answer to the question what is forensic psychology.

What I didn't mention, however, is that after about 2 minutes I would ask for their attention and apologise for forgetting to tell them that they weren't allowed to use the words serial killers or silence of the lambs in their answer. It was usually as this point that most of the writing in the lecture theatre stopped.
If you're thinking I would have stopped writing as well, please contain your disappointment and don't rush off just yet. The answer to the question, what is forensic psychology may not quite be what you thought, but that doesn't mean that the subject has to be any less engaging.

The first thing to appreciate when addressing the question is that even psychologists in the field are divided as to what the answer is.

The division of criminological and legal psychology within the British Psychological Society argued for twenty years as to whether their members should be entitled to call themselves Chartered Forensic Psychologists. It was finally agreed that they should, however, there still remains a great deal of debate and controversy surrounding the issue.

The central problem is that its members are drawn from a wide range of disciplines, so it is always difficult to state what the boundaries are when you talk of Forensic Psychology.

A fragmented discipline?

Psychologists in the prison/correctional services.
Clinical psychologists in special hospitals & the psychiatric services.
Educational psychologists
Occupational psychologists
Academics

Now while it is important to acknowledge that this fragmentation of role exists, it is just as important to realise that these different groups are linked to forensic psychology because their work, expert knowledge or research activity is somehow connected with the law.
This legal connection makes perfect sense when you consider that the word forensic comes from the Latin forensis, which literally means appertaining to the forum, specifically the imperial court of Rome.

So in essence:

The debate as to what is and what isn't forensic psychology rests primarily on the nature of psychology's relationship with the legal system.

Let me give you an example, imagine 2 clinical psychologists meet at a conference and they begin talking about the work they do.

The first psychologist tells the second that she recently gave expert testimony in court arguing that the defendant in a murder case was criminally insane; the judge and jury agreed and having been found guilty on the grounds of diminished responsibility the defendant was going to be sent to a secure psychiatric unit.
Now there's a coincidence the second psychologist says I work in the unit where they're sending him, so I'll be dealing and treating this guy when he arrives.

So here you have a situation where 2 psychologists are linked to the legal system by way of a legal decision and you could argue, therefore, that both deserve to be seen as engaging in Forensic Psychology. However, there's a crucial difference.

The first psychologist actually helped inform the legal decision based on her psychological knowledge and expertise. The second psychologists' involvement on the other hand arose as a consequence of a legal decision that she had no direct influence over.

My preferred forensic psychology definition acknowledges this key distinction, namely:
That branch of applied psychology which is concerned with the collection, examination and presentation of evidence for judicial purposes' (Haward 1981).

If you adopt this definition you are stating categorically that Forensic Psychology relates to:
The provision of psychological information for the purpose of facilitating a legal decision (Blackburn 1996).

So in the case of our two psychologists, strictly speaking only the first can be said to be engaged in Forensic Psychology.

Not everybody would agree with this, because there is a school of thought that would claim that any activity that links psychology to the law deserves to be described as Forensic. I'm not going to try and convince you which is right, although I do have a strong opinion on the mater; the main thing is that you
know that this debate exists.

Philosophy and Psychology - Uneasy Siblings

2010-09-08T11:08:00.000-07:00

Most of us who work in some aspect of philosophy have had the experience of trying to explain to someone that philosophy is not psychology. To those members of the philosophical set, the distinction may seem obvious, but any attempt to spell it out requires some careful thought and reflection, which is what I attempt to do in this exercise.

Is Psychology a sibling of Philosophy? Surely in the past they were close siblings, members of the same family, philosophy. Today the relationship between the two is more problematic. Does work in philosophy have any relation to the student's psychological state? The answer also is not a clear-cut one. Philosophy can help a person psychologically, but this is not central to the function of philosophy.

Some History:

Historically in Western Philosophy, Psychology was part of philosophy until the 19th century when it became a separate science. In the 17th and 18th centuries, many Western philosophers did pioneering work in areas that later came to be known as "psychology." Eventually psychological inquiry and research became separate sciences some of which could be characterized as the study and research into the mind. In short, psychology became identified as the science of mind insofar as its function is to analyze and explain mental processes: our thoughts, experiences, sensations, feelings, perceptions, imaginations, creativity, dreams and so on. It is mostly an empirical and experimental science; although the field of psychology does include the more theoretical Freudian psychology and the more speculative Jungian psychology.

When we study Western Philosophy, we find a concentrated effort to maintain a distinction between philosophical and psychological considerations. But these have not always been kept separate. Even today some areas of philosophy remain intermixed with psychological considerations. It may be that some forms of philosophy can never break away completely from psychological issues.
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Traditionally, philosophers in the Western tradition did not always observe a wall of separation between philosophy and psychology. For example, Baruch Spinoza's great work, Ethics, includes many observations and insights about our reasoning processes and emotions. The early works in Epistemology (theory of knowledge) by such thinkers as Rene Descartes, John Locke, David Hume, and Immanuel Kant include a great deal of observations and statements about mental processes connected with knowing and belief. In other words, these writings tend to mix psychological statements (process of knowing) with conceptual philosophy.

But there are differences between psychology and philosophy which are significant and should be observed in careful writing in either area. In our critiques of these 17th and 18th works in epistemology, we try to separate the philosophical theme (logic, conceptual and propositional evaluation) from the psychological aspect (causes of belief, mental process underlying perception). Scientific work that seeks to understand and explain the workings of the brain and the neurological processes which underlie thought and experience (viz., psychology) is different from philosophical inquiry into mind, consciousness, knowledge and experiences. Edmund Husserl, the founder of phenomenology, takes great pains to keep his philosophy separate from empirical psychology. But it is not clear that his analysis (or other analyses) of the phenomenology of different experiences remains something clearly distinct from psychology.

But in large part the problem remains, especially in such areas of philosophy of mind, of keeping philosophical work free of psychology altogether. Moreover, we should not assume that in all cases these must be kept separate, as some work in philosophy surely requires consideration of the psychological sciences.
Even today the student will likely be surprised by the number of psychological insights that Spinoza offers in this great work, Ethics, back in the 17th century and similar psychological observations by Friedrich Nietzsche in the 19th century. William James, the great American pragmatist, includes much psychology in his philosophy. He has much to say about the stream of consciousness and special experiences, such as religious experiences.

Current Concerns:

Philosophy of mind: There is a sense in which the mind is a psychological construct; there's another sense in which it is not. "My mind is such and such" can be restated as "my thinking is such and such." Sometimes it is the psychology behind my thinking that is the issue; but other times we're interested in what could be called the conceptual-propositional issues; and still other times we might be more interested in the literary-artistic expression of ideas, values, and perspectives.

In Epistemology we're concerned with the concept of knowledge; but our primary interest is not one of describing the psychology of knowing. Our interest is not in the process by which we come to know something, but in the clarification of concepts associated with knowledge and belief; and in the logic of propositions related to knowledge. Included among the philosophers who engage in the philosophy of knowledge are Bertrand Russell, D.W. Hamlyn, and Richard Rorty.

In the area of academic philosophy, besides the large field of epistemology, we have philosophy of mind, theory of consciousness, philosophy of language, Cartesian Idealism, and the free will issue. Ordinarily these are not seen as forms of psychological inquiry. They are more directed to conceptual and propositional issues. Included among the philosophers who engage in work on knowledge, language, and mind in this vein are Ludwig Wittgenstein, Gilbert Ryle, D.W. Hamlyn, John Austin, and Daniel Dennett.

But psychology is very much a part of those philosophical studies of special experience, such as the religious experience, the mystical experience, and even moral experience. A good representative of this approach is the great American pragmatist, William James. Much of his work in philosophy does not stray too far from his psychological interests.

Some aspects of philosophy are concerned with the nature of human thought. This interest is distinct from psychological study, description and theory. But to be adequate and credible it needs to take into account the work of psychologists and the cognitive scientists. The subject of human thought is a big topic which can be approached from different directions. One of these is philosophy; another is psychology and the cognitive sciences. Still others are literary art, the fine arts, and history.

Suppose I ask about Spinoza's thought with regard to moral obligation; how does he defend the thesis that morality and rationality are closely intertwined? As a student of philosophy, my interests could be strictly philosophical interests. I want to know how he develops and defends his philosophical thesis. On the other hand, I could be curious about the causes of Spinoza's thinking; or maybe interested in possible motives that he might have had for adopting his particular philosophy. What events in his childhood or family life led him to embrace the values of rationality and the ideals of the geometric method? In this latter case, I would be proceeding as an amateur, folk psychologist.

There are different ways of trying to understand the thought of a person, e.g. a writer or a philosopher. We take one way when we ask about the causes and motivations behind the person's ideas; i.e., we ask about the psychological 'workings.' Another way is to do philosophical criticism and evaluation of the person's ideas. But the two (psychology and philosophy) can be combined in a single study.

Philosophy and the psychological well-being of the individual:

Another way of considering the interaction of psychology and philosophy is at the personal level. Do a person's meditation on philosophical questions bring about (or bring closer) some degree of psychic harmony? To the extent that philosophical work and thought contribute to a person's sense of well-being and fulfillment, one could argue that philosophy is a form of therapy. Is there a sense in which philosophy can be therapeutic?

If the unexamined life is not worth living (Socrates), then it may follow that the examined life (the "philosophical life") is worth living. This could be seen as suggesting that philosophical thought results in a form of personal fulfillment and good psychological health.

Contrary to this we have the view (mostly the prevailing view) that philosophy is an intellectual discipline which has little or nothing to do with anyone's striving to achieve some form of personal, psychic fulfillment. Add to this the fact that most people who work in philosophy (e.g. academic philosophers or professors of philosophy) are not especially noteworthy for lives of psychic well-being. In this regard, think of people like Blaise Pascal, S. Kierkegaard, F. Nietzsche and Ludwig Wittgenstein. How psychologically healthy and well balanced were they? They were emotionally and mentally tormented, and won't be mentioned much as models of psychic calm and well-being. Moreover, some philosophers are driven to engage in philosophy, much like artists, poets, and composers are driven to do their creative work. Here we have a form of psychological compulsion that does not seem to be a form of therapy. In fact, some people even refer to philosophy as a type of disease.

Closing Thoughts:

The student of philosophy usually is not a psychologist, but nothing says that the student cannot proceed as a psychologist of sorts. I imagine situations in we attempt to get clear about our thoughts and values; and attempt to be honest about our motivations for all that we do. People used to say back in the 1960s era: I'm just trying to get my "head straight."

Suppose that a psychologist can tell me about the causes, the mental processes, and hidden motives that underlie my thinking and behavior. He might say that in order to truly understand what I am about I must have some understanding of these "psychological" things; i.e., I must acknowledge and expose them. If I were to accept his advice and try to do those things, would I be acting in accordance with the Socratic maxim to "know thyself"?

The professional is concerned with empirical, descriptive psychology and with research into neurological and psychological processes. But we, the amateurs, are primarily indulging a form of folk psychology: Trying to say what I think about my own thinking. Or trying to deal better with my psychic life. Sometimes I apply this 'folk psychology' to myself (I try to figure out what I'm about) or to others (I try to understand their motives for saying such and such or doing so and so.)

On a more practical level, we can imagine someone asking: "What do I really want in life? How do I get there?" Can philosophy help us here? Maybe not, but then again think of two of our great figures in Western Philosophy, Socrates and Spinoza. They are often cited as models of psychological harmony and wisdom. Ultimately, aren't we all psychologists to some degree, even those of us who flounder about in philosophy? Yes, we are to some degree 'psychologists' insofar as we are awake, alert, conscientious, and honestly engage in self-examination. This does not need to be kept separate from our work in philosophy.

The Place of Spirituality in Psychology

2010-09-07T08:26:00.000-07:00

The field of psychology encompasses many aspects that must be dealt with on a daily basis. Psychologists and others working in the field are often faced with moral dilemmas that may cause them to question the place of morals and spirituality in psychology.

Those who practice some form of religion may use their specific values and morals when it comes to finding resolutions in these situations. There still lies the question of whether religion has a place in the day-to-day practice of psychology and if so, where to draw the line.

In part, psychology is considered a science. Though it is not exact in all situations, it does carry with it various similarities to science where theories and decision making are concerned. Ethics play a big role in psychology for both the roles of the psychologist or psychological professional conducting evaluations and providing treatment and the client or patient receiving the services or treatment. The code of ethics was put into place to protect both parties involved. Ethics is based on right and wrong and, can therefore be closely related to morality in many instances. Because of this, it can be argued that religion plays a role in the ethical decisions that are made everyday. Though the code of ethics does not specifically site religion as a part of what is contained there in, various aspects of morality and common values are found.

Spirituality as a whole has become even more prevalent in the field of psychology over the past several years as evidenced by the number of Christian counseling centers that have opened around the country. The professionals working in these settings offer what some say is the perfect combination of treatment, psychology based on Christian values and beliefs. Here the psychological principles and ethics are used with various aspects of religious values and beliefs interwoven into the treatment plans. Patients are often counseled on how spirituality can help them through their difficult situations. In these settings, professionals strive to find a balance between psychology and religion, a challenging task at times. Psychology is based on various principles, theories and ethics while religion is based mostly on faith. Psychological issues are proven in a scientific way while a good part of religion is based on belief in the unseen. While many people don't question their faith, it can be difficult to intermingle what can be physically seen with what cannot. This causes many people to question the place of spirituality in psychology.

Because faith is often questioned, it has become necessary to receive proof. This proof often comes in the form of answers that are a direct result of the testing of ideas (Myers). When ideas are tested and found to be correct, faith is easier to maintain; however, then they do not survive the test, faith can become a very shaky prospect. When this principle is applied to psychology, the outcome can change on a regular basis. Different situations call for different ideas which may or may not prove to work. Also, what works in one situation may prove impossible in another. The key to understanding where spirituality fits in is knowing how to apply it to each individual situation and idea and make determinations and assessments based on the information that is gathered and the particular values that are relevant to the end result.

To better understand where religion fits into the psychological realm, let's take a closer look at the human attributes that make up each. Where religion is concerned there is the theological wisdom. This deals with the acceptance of divine love in order to enable individuals to accept themselves. Psychological wisdom, however, deals with self-esteem, optimism and personal control (Myers). The ability to use the two together to make important decisions will provide the freedom to use what we know, admit what we don't and search for the answers. Because we are both the creatures and creators of our own social world, people and situations matter (Myers). While ultimate control lies beyond us, we carry responsibility for making important decisions that have a lasting effect on us as well as others.

Psychologists face these dilemmas everyday. They must make important decisions that will directly effect their patients. Each decision is made on an individual basis and is dependent on each specific situation and its own set of circumstances. Each decision will carry with it a separate set of ethical issues and dilemmas and the solution will remain unique to each. Religion is said to heal people while medicine was designed to do the same. The two often work in different contexts, but it can be argued that medicine was discovered because of ideas and values based on religious beliefs. Because of this, it is believed in many situations the two are used together to come up with treatment plans that will be both effective and long lasting.

In many ways, people who have great faith have found the insights and critical analyses of psychology to be supportive of the understanding they possess of human nature. Their assumption that religion is conducive to happiness and good health is also attributed in great part to psychology. The science of psychology offers principles that can be applied to the construction of messages that will prove both memorable and persuasive. Here the tasks of peacemaking and reconciliation are promoted in a way that offers solutions that will provide the means by which others can achieve happiness by establishing healthy relationships (Myers). While the science may challenge our way of thinking, the same can be said of religion. Faith is often questioned in an effort to find answers. This has proven to be helpful in many situations where the answer wasn't clearly defined. Here, the science of psychology is used along with the religious beliefs to find solutions to problems that seemingly have no immediate or clear resolution. Still, faith is not always a negative aspect of psychology.
A strong value and belief system can help a psychologist working as a professional in the field deal with situations where the traditional psychological theories aren't showing a definite answer. Here the process is reversed because religion is used to clarify a particular set of circumstances based on the lack of information that can be gathered at a given time. There are also times where one can support the other. Religious beliefs are often used to support the reasoning behind many ethical situations whereas psychology is often used to prove various religion based ideas. This is where the two can be used in tandem to come up with a truly unique solution that will work.

It has also been argued that faith plays an important role in a psychologist's ability to use the information found in the code of ethics and psychological practices that are present everyday. This is based on the belief that people who possess strong faith are better able to understand the science of psychology because they can use the two together to come up with answers that are suited to each new set of circumstances.

Here psychologists are not heavily relying on either faith or science, but instead are using them both to gain a better understanding of the situation as a whole. Those who believe in the contents of the code of ethics understand its importance and why it must play a role in psychology on a daily basis (Kafka). Those who possess strong religious beliefs usually strive to use them everyday when making ethical decisions and are often working toward an outcome built on both science and faith. Still there is a very important line between when to use the science of psychology and when to rely on the beliefs and values that often assist many in making daily life decisions.

When it comes to the co-mingling of psychology and spirituality, each has its own place. The scientific aspects of psychology are necessary in order to solve a wide range of problems and provide successful treatment to those in need. Still, spirituality can play a very important role in the rehabilitation of patients by making it easier to understand the psychological ramifications and why they exist. Spirituality and science can be used both during and after treatment. During treatment, religious beliefs may guide both the psychologist and patient toward making the right decisions and understanding difficult situations along the way. After treatment, religion can continue to help the patient as he or she moves onward through life while the scientific aspect may still remain present in the form of ongoing counseling or use of medication.

Psychologists can use both in their profession to make difficult decisions and deal with hard to solve problems. Aspects of each can be relied upon to provide the means by which to draw important conclusions that may help throughout the entire treatment process. Evidence has also shown that psychologists who know their profession but also possess strong religious beliefs are able to help their patients throughout treatment by passing on various virtues that promote positive thinking (Myers).

The end results of melding together both science and spirituality have been studied for a number of years. Some argue psychology should remain only a science while others feel the intertwining of science with religion can only serve to improve the overall outcome of treatment situations. The argument is also made that science as a whole has strong ties to religion and the two often give cause for the questioning of each other. Science can often prove what religion cannot and religion was the basis for the need to know, thus people began studying the how and why of scientific matters (Myers).

Some have explained the boundaries between psychology and religion by bringing up a few points that express how one relates to the other. One point is the correlation of scientific ideas presented in everyday human nature to religion and being able to site the information to show how it is all related. Another important point is the link between religion, prejudice, altruism and overall well-being (Myers).

When dealing with various psychological situations, it is just as important to realize the importance of the science as it is the religion. This is often difficult to do because of the differing beliefs and values possessed by each professional working in the field. Because of this, it is necessary for each to make decisions based on the psychological code of ethics along with the specific circumstances of each given situation. For those who are religious, spirituality will most likely play a role in the decision making process in a professional setting because it very likely does in any other. Those who utilize spirituality in day-to-day situations often rely on it to guide them in their professions. Though the psychological code of ethics may not have been created based specifically around the religious beliefs and values directly associated with spirituality, there are many similarities between ethical dilemmas and resolutions and those of a moral nature.

Correlations have also been reported between faith and subjective well-being. One example of this can be found in a National Opinion Research Center survey of 42,00 Americans that was conducted after 1972. Here 26 percent who never attended religious services reported being very happy while 47 percent of those participating in spiritual services on a regular basis, sometimes more than weekly reported also being very happy (Myers). Though this does not sho3w a direct link between religion and well-being, it does indicate that many people seek spirituality in various aspects of their lives. Whether the science of psychology and spirituality should be co-mingled in a professional setting can be a bit subjective as it is dependent upon the differing situations and those directly involved in the treatment processes.

While there are correlations between the ethical code used by psychological professionals everywhere and the morality associated with religion, the two remain separate and can be called upon in any given situation where they may be deemed necessary or important. The code of ethics is used every day in the psychological setting, but whether or not spirituality is involved may be up to each professional working in the field.

An Introduction to Yoga Psychology

2010-09-07T08:21:00.000-07:00

One of the more beautifully developed sciences of spiritual-based psychology is yoga psychology, the study of human psyche in relation to life and the larger dimensions of existence. This science, matriculated from the ancient tradition of yoga, seeks to explain and explore the potentials of the human life, uncovering the hidden mysteries behind life's purpose, existence, and relationship to the world in which we live.

While there are many systems of psychology available to modern man, yoga psychology is unique in that is seeks to merge modern science with ancient philosophy. Through its distinct methods of treating and transforming the mind to its open and holistic approach to life, yoga psychology is an effective science for providing a healthy, balanced, and individually sensitive approach the mental health and wellness.

The Philosophy of Psychology

Generally, the philosophy of psychology has pursued two outlets. The first that suggests that life is empirical and can be measured and observed on a material level. This philosophy maintains that all system are composed of matter which can be seen through physical observation and observed through the senses. Therefore, everything that exists within the human being can be measured on a physical level accounts for all aspects of the human existence. One important point of this philosophical ideology is that everything is based off of experience, external input, and genetic disposition. These together form the entire foundation for the psyche. Therefore, elements that appear to extend beyond the confines of the physical and observable level of existence are either imagined or yet to be proven through empirical observation.

Contrary to the empirical belief is the philosophy that human beings are composed of elements that are beyond the confines of the physical structure of the human being. Although material components contribute to our existence, there are many features of the human being that cannot be measured with a microscope or electromagnetic scans. Although these features are not composed of the same material as the human body, they existence in their own dimension and retain their own qualities that allow them to exist.

One of the primary examples of an element that exists in its own form is consciousness. Under the definition of the non-empirical philosophy, consciousness is a part of human life, but is not contained solely within the human being, nor can it be found within the structures of the brain. Rather it is a field of existence that permeates all of creation, but takes the appearance of separate entities when filtered through the structure of the individual entities such as a human being. Therefore it is part of the human being, but not limited to the human structure in and of itself.

For the most part, empirical based psychology believes that consciousness is a component of the brain, and a spirit, or some entity that is connected to a higher source, does not exist. All that is experienced and seen within the individual can be explained within the physical content of the human being. Therefore, the pursuit of understanding and comprehension of the functions of the human psyche are mostly undertaken within the study of brain through the sciences such as neuropsychology. This forms the foundation for the more extended studies of behavioral, developmental, and cognitive psychology.

Non-empirical psychology, on the other hand, accepts the soul, or something existing with the human being that extends beyond the limits of the perishable body, as an additional entity contributing to the human existance. While the human body contains part of the material necessary to form life, it does not make up the whole system. Non empirical psychology maintains the belief that individual consciousness is a component of a large system that has been referred to as cosmic, universal, or collective consciousness.

With this understanding in mind, non-empirical psychology pursues the study of the human psyche through the components of consciousness, soul/spirit, and other elements beyond the physical body.

While not every psychology conforms to these boundaries, most of the applied practices of psychology conform themselves to the outline of one of these ideology; either the mind is in the body and the brain, or it is part of something larger and beyond the limits of the body. As a social practice, western psychology usually follows the path of the empirical study where as eastern psychology has been that of the metaphysical and spiritualistic. Yet there are modern schools of thought, researchers and psychologists that are extending beyond these boundaries and seeking to reform psychology into a complete science of the human mind. Indeed, the human brain does show significant contributions to the functions of thought, perception, and behavior, but at the same time there has been no substantial evidence that self-awareness or consciousness can be contained within the functions of the brain. Together, both of these insights have proven to be significant challenges to the modern day research of the psychology of human beings.

Yoga Psychology, as a conventional practice, has evolved to embody both the empirical and non-empirical perspective of psychology. Although it could generally be considered a non-empirical philosophy, yoga psychology has also greatly accepted the influences of the anatomical structure in developing, shaping, and creating the psychology of a human being; yet the physical body does not contain all of the elements necessary to form the complexity of the human mind and consciousness.

Through the philosophy and spiritual-inquisition of yoga, yoga psychology maintains the belief that the human psychology is shaped by factors from various sphere of life, starting from the most material physical body and working through to the subtle elements of the spirit. Each layer is not an independent system, nor is it contained within one single structure. Rather, there are several sheaths that co-exist and work seamlessly between one another to form the complete structure, form, and existence of the human being.

The Application of Psychology

Practically, psychology is designed to be applied as a functional means to provide people with a healthy mind. While the definition of what constitutes a health mind may vary between different philosophical beliefs, generally people want live a life that contains more happiness, a stronger self-concept, and a personality that is capable of handling the changes and evolving events in life. Psychology seeks to provide people with the tools necessary to create the proper circumstances for a health mind, using a variety of skills, perceptions, and methods to help form the desired results.

Among some of the major components used by modern psychology to help people find a healthier mental construct include: medication, counseling, group therapy, psycho-analysis, environmental alterations, and mental conditioning. All of these methods seek to provide people with a stronger mental state with which they can approach life.

"Natural" forms of psychology usually avoid medication and evasive techniques that may cause unnecessary changes to the bio-chemical structure of the body. They also traditionally focus on approaching psychological complexes with a more holistic perspective which includes physical ailments and emotional disturbances. In contrast, a more "westernized" system of psychology usually treats patients based upon classified disorders or dysfunctions which are related to the mind or the brain. Treatment is provided based upon the symptoms of a patient in relationship to other classically defined cases. For many patients, medication is used in conjunction with counseling and therapy.

As a practice, yoga psychology usually addresses the psychological changes within a human being's life with a wide variety of techniques, each designed to help regulate and modify a specific irregularity within the human system. Generally, yoga psychology follows the "natural" system of psychological healthcare as it typically treats each case independently, providing help to an individual after analysis of the physical, psychological, energetic, and spiritual elements of their life. For physical disturbances which are affecting the psychological state, exercise and movement known as the asanas (postures) are applied.

These can also be used in conjunction with cleansing techniques which help to remove toxins from the body. For psychological disturbances, meditation, concentration, and self-observation are used. Generally, the body and the mind are viewed as interdependent entities, so specific physical activity or alterations can treat psychological disturbances as well. For energetic problems, breathing exercises are used to increase or decrease energy within the body. Diet can also be modified to help increase vitality. The health of the spiritual aspect of life is dependent on the state of the physical, mental, and energetic bodies, and therefore is typically cared for by treating these bodies first.

Although many systems of psychology exist, yoga psychology is one that can be applied for those who seek a better knowledge of themselves. While a belief in spiritual aspects of life will assist one who wishes to practice yoga psychology, it is not a necessity. Rather, yoga psychology should be viewed as a holistic system of psychology which works to create an equilibrium in the body and the mind so that optimum health and strength can be achieved. It also works to provide people with a greater understanding of life as the body, mind, and spirit are actively transformed to reach their fullest potentials.

Psychology - The Study of the Human Mind

2010-09-07T08:13:00.000-07:00

Why are children stubborn? Why do some people become addicted to alcohol or gambling? How do you help an abused child? All of these are difficult and challenging questions that the field of psychology is trying to answer.

So, then what exactly is psychology? There are many misperceptions created by television and movies today, but the basic answer is that psychology is both an applied and academic science that studies the human mind and behavior. Research in psychology seeks to understand and explain thought, emotion, and behavior. Psychology is applied to individuals via mental health treatment, performance enhancement, self-help, ergonomics, and many other areas affecting health and daily life.

Psychology History and Schools of Thought

While people have always been fascinated by human behavior, it wasn't until the late 19th century that psychology began to be considered an actual science. Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology lab in Germany. He believed in a school of thought called structuralism-believing that certain structures in the mind caused behavior. Over the course of psychology's history, different schools of thought have competed for prominence.

Here are the major schools of thought in psychology:

Structuralism. The belief that there is a connection between sensation and emotion and behavior.

Functionalism. The idea that the human brain is much like a computer, designed to carry out specific functions.

Psychoanalysis. Created by Sigmund Freud, this school of thought believes in the rigorous probing of an individual's personal problems, motives, goals and attitudes as a way to heal the mind.

Behaviorism. Proponents of this theory essentially hold that all human behavior is learned from one's surrounding context and environment.

Humanism. This much more recent school of thought came as a reaction to behaviorism and Psychoanalysis, and emphasizes the importance of values, intentions, and meaning in the individual. The concept of the "self" is a central focus for most humanistic psychologists.

Cognitivism. This branch of psychology believes that psychology should be concerned with a person's internal representations of the world and with the internal or functional organization of the mind.

As psychology moved away from its philosophical roots, psychologists began to employ more and more scientific methods to study human behavior. Today, researchers employ a variety of scientific methods, including experiments, correlational studies, longitudinal studies, and others to test, explain, and predict behavior.

Areas of Psychology

Students of psychology soon realize that the subject covers a huge range of material. The diverse topics students might study include social behavior, personality, research methods, therapeutic techniques, and much more. Because it's such a broad and diverse field, a number of different subfields and specialty areas have emerged.

The following are some of the major areas of research and application within psychology:

Abnormal Psychology is the study of abnormal behavior. This specialty area is focused on research and treatment of a variety of mental disorders and is linked to psychotherapy and clinical psychology.

Biological Psychology studies how biological processes influence the mind and behavior. This area is closely linked to neuroscience and utilizes tools such as MRI and PET scans to look at brain injury or brain abnormalities.

Clinical Psychology is focused on the assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of mental disorders.

Cognitive Psychology is the study of human thought processes and cognitions. Cognitive psychologists study topics such as attention, memory, perception, decision-making, problem solving, and language acquisition.

Comparative Psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the study of animal behavior.

Developmental Psychology is the branch of psychology that looks at human growth and development over the lifespan.

Forensic Psychology is an applied field focused on using psychological research and principles in the legal and criminal justice system.

Industrial-Organizational Psychology is the area of psychology that uses psychological research to enhance work performance, select employee, improve product design, and enhance usability.

Personality Psychology looks at the various elements that make up individual personalities.

School Psychology is the branch of psychology that works within the educational system to help children with emotional, social, and academic issues.

Social Psychology is a discipline that uses scientific methods to study social influence, social perception, and social interaction. Social psychology studies diverse subjects including group behavior, social perception, leadership, nonverbal behavior, conformity, aggression, and prejudice.

Today, psychologists prefer to use more objective scientific methods to understand, explain, and predict human behavior. Psychological studies are highly structured, beginning with a hypothesis that is then empirically tested. Academic psychologists focus on the study of different sub-topics within psychology including personality psychology, social psychology, and developmental psychology.

These psychologists conduct basic research that seeks to expand our theoretical knowledge, while other researchers conduct applied research that seeks to solve everyday problems. Applied psychology focuses on the use of different psychological principles to solve real world problems. Examples of applied areas of psychology include forensic psychology, ergonomics, and industrial-organizational psychology.

Many other psychologists work as therapists, helping people overcome mental, behavioral, and emotional disorders.

Psychology is a broad and diverse field with a variety of related professions. If you are considering studying psychology, you are pursuing one of the most important and basic of the human sciences. You can expect to have a long, satisfying, and fascinating career if psychology is your field.

List of psychological schools

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Various schools of thought have argued for a particular model to be used as a guiding theory by which all, or the majority, of human behavior can be explained. The popularity of these has waxed and waned over time. Some psychologists may think of themselves as adherents to a particular school of thought and reject the others, although most consider each as an approach to understanding the mind, and not necessarily as mutually exclusive theories. On the basis of Tinbergen's four questions a framework of reference of all fields of psychological research can be established (including anthropological research and humanities).

Some researchers in psychology are working on an integrated perspective toward understanding consciousness, behavior, and social interaction. The biopsychosocial model, for instance, assumes that any given behavior or mental process affects and is affected by dynamically interrelated biological, psychological, and social factors. The psychological aspect refers to the role that cognition and emotions play in any given psychological phenomenon—for example, the effect of mood or beliefs and expectations on an individual's reactions to an event. The biological aspect refers to the role of biological factors in psychological phenomena—for example, the effect of the prenatal environment on brain development and cognitive abilities, or the influence of genes on individual dispositions. The socio-cultural aspect refers to the role that social and cultural environments play in a given psychological phenomenon—for example, the role of parental or peer influence in the behaviors or characteristics of an individual.

Cognitive psychology

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Noam Chomsky helped to ignite a "cognitive revolution" in psychology when he criticized the behaviorists' notions of "stimulus", "response", and "reinforcement", arguing that such ideas—which Skinner had borrowed from animal experiments in the laboratory—could be applied to complex human behavior, most notably language acquisition, in only a vague and superficial manner. Chomsky emphasized that research and analysis must not ignore the innate contribution of the child to such behavior, while social learning theorists such as Albert Bandura argued that the child's environment could make contributions of its own to the behaviors of an observant subject. The notion that behavior could be precipitated only by the functioning of an internal device or by the perception of external surroundings posed a challenge to the behaviorist position that behavior is contingent upon the prior associations that individuals have made between behavioral responses and pleasurable or painful stimuli.

Noam Chomsky

Meanwhile, accumulating technology helped to renew interest and belief in the mental states and representations—i.e., the cognition—that had fallen out of favor with behaviorists. English neuroscientist Charles Sherrington and Canadian psychologist Donald O. Hebb used experimental methods to link psychological phenomena with the structure and function of the brain. With the rise of computer science and artificial intelligence, analogies were drawn between the processing of information by humans and information processing by machines. Research in cognition had proven practical since World War II, when it aided in the understanding of weapons operation. By the late 20th century, though, cognitivism had become the dominant paradigm of mainstream psychology, and cognitive psychology emerged as a popular branch.

Assuming both that the covert mind should be studied and that the scientific method should be used to study it, cognitive psychologists set such concepts as "subliminal processing" and "implicit memory" in place of the psychoanalytic "unconscious mind" or the behavioristic "contingency-shaped behaviors". Elements of behaviorism and cognitive psychology were synthesized to form the basis of cognitive behavioral therapy, a form of psychotherapy modified from techniques developed by American psychologist Albert Ellis and American psychiatrist Aaron T. Beck. Cognitive psychology was subsumed along with other disciplines, such as philosophy of mind, computer science, and neuroscience, under the umbrella discipline of cognitive science.

Humanistic psychology

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Humanistic psychology was developed in the 1950s in reaction to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis. By using phenomenology, intersubjectivity and first-person categories, the humanistic approach sought to glimpse the whole person—not just the fragmented parts of the personality or cognitive functioning. Humanism focused on fundamentally and uniquely human issues, such as self-identity, death, aloneness, freedom, and meaning. The humanistic approach was distinguished by its emphasis on subjective meaning, rejection of determinism, and concern for positive growth rather than pathology. Some of the founders of this school of thought were American psychologists Abraham Maslow, who formulated a hierarchy of human needs, and Carl Rogers, who created and developed client-centered therapy; and German-American psychiatrist Fritz Perls, who co-founded Gestalt therapy. It became so influential as to be called the "third force" within psychology, along with behaviorism and psychoanalysis. Later, positive psychology opened up humanistic themes to scientific modes of exploration.

Abraham Maslow

Influenced largely by the work of German philosopher Martin Heidegger and Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard, psychoanalytically trained American psychologist Rollo May pioneered an existential breed of psychology, which included existential therapy, in the 1950s and 1960s. Existential psychologists differed from others often classified as humanistic in their comparatively neutral view of human nature and in their relatively positive assessment of anxiety. Existential psychologists emphasized the humanistic themes of death, free will, and meaning, suggesting that meaning can be shaped by myths, or narrative patterns, and that it can be encouraged by an acceptance of the free will requisite to an authentic, albeit often anxious, regard for death and other future prospects. Austrian existential psychiatrist and Holocaust survivor Viktor Frankl drew evidence of meaning's therapeutic power from reflections garnered from his own internment, and he created a variety of existential psychotherapy called logotherapy. In addition to May and Frankl, Swiss psychoanalyst Ludwig Binswanger and American psychologist George Kelly may be said to belong to the existential school.

Behaviorism

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Founded in the early 20th century by American psychologist John B. Watson, behaviorism was embraced and extended by Americans Edward Thorndike, Clark L. Hull, Edward C. Tolman, and later B. F. Skinner. Behaviorism reflected a belief that the methodology behind laboratory-based animal experimentation, which was increasing in popularity as physiology grew more sophisticated, could provide useful psychosocial understanding of a type that comparatively subjective inquiries, such as psychodynamic analysis as employed by Freud or introspection as used by Wundt and James, could not.

John B. Watson

The behaviorists shared with their predecessors a philosophical inclination toward positivism and determinism. With Skinner, however, they entered into a line of thought, extending back to Austrian physicist and philosopher Ernst Mach, which held that the research methods most faithful to their scientific orientation would yield "the pursuit of tools for the control of life problems rather than a search for timeless truths". The behaviorists argued that many contents of the mind were not open to scientific scrutiny and that scientific psychology should emphasize the study of observable behavior. Behaviorists focused on behavior–environment relations and analyzed overt and covert (i.e., private) behavior as a function of the organism interacting with its environment. Therefore, they often rejected or deemphasized dualistic explanations such as "mind" or "consciousness"; and, in lieu of probing an "unconscious mind" that underlies unawareness, they spoke of the "contingency-shaped behaviors" in which unawareness becomes outwardly manifest.

Among the behaviorists' most famous creations are Watson's Little Albert experiment, which applied classical conditioning to a human being, and Skinner's notion of operant conditioning, which acknowledged that human agency could affect patterns and cycles of environmental stimuli and behavioral responses. American linguist Noam Chomsky's critique of the behaviorist model of language acquisition is regarded by many as a key factor in the decline of behaviorism's prominence. But Skinner's behaviorism has not died, perhaps in part because it has generated successful practical applications. The fall of behaviorism as an overarching model in psychology, however, gave way to a new dominant paradigm: cognitive approaches.

Cognitive and Comparative psychology

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Cognitive psychology
Cognitive psychology studies cognition, the mental processes underlying mental activity. Perception, learning, problem solving, reasoning, thinking, memory, attention, language and emotion are areas of research.

Classical cognitive psychology is associated with a school of thought known as cognitivism, whose adherents argue for an information processing model of mental function, informed by functionalism and experimental psychology.

On a broader level, cognitive science is an interdisciplinary enterprise of cognitive psychologists, cognitive neuroscientists, researchers in artificial intelligence, linguists, human–computer interaction, computational neuroscience, logicians and social scientists.

Computational models are sometimes used to simulate phenomena of interest. Computational models provide a tool for studying the functional organization of the mind whereas neuroscience provides measures of brain activity.

Comparative psychology

Comparative psychology refers to the study of the behavior and mental life of animals other than human beings. It is related to disciplines outside of psychology that study animal behavior such as ethology. Although the field of psychology is primarily concerned with humans the behavior and mental processes of animals is also an important part of psychological research.

This being either as a subject in its own right (e.g., animal cognition and ethology) or with strong emphasis about evolutionary links, and somewhat more controversially, as a way of gaining an insight into human psychology.

This is achieved by means of comparison or via animal models of emotional and behavior systems as seen in neuroscience of psychology (e.g., affective neuroscience and social neuroscience).

Biological and Clinical psychology

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Psychology encompasses a vast domain, and includes many different approaches to the study of mental processes and behavior.

Biological psychology

Biological psychology or Behavioral Neuroscience is the scientific study of the biological substrates of behavior and mental states. Seeing all behavior as intertwined with the nervous system, biological psychologists feel it is sensible to study how the brain functions in order to understand behavior.

This is the approach taken in behavioral neuroscience, cognitive neuroscience, and neuropsychology. Neuropsychology is the branch of psychology that aims to understand how the structure and function of the brain relate to specific behavioral and psychological processes.

Neuropsychology is particularly concerned with the understanding of brain injury in an attempt to work out normal psychological function. Cognitive neuroscientists often use neuroimaging tools, which can help them to observe which areas of the brain are active during a particular task.

MRI depicting the human brain.

The arrow indicates the position of the hypothalamus

Clinical psychology

Clinical psychology includes the study and application of psychology for the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically based distress or dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and personal development.

Central to its practice are psychological assessment and psychotherapy, although clinical psychologists may also engage in research, teaching, consultation, forensic testimony, and program development and administration. Some clinical psychologists may focus on the clinical management of patients with brain injury—this area is known as clinical neuropsychology. In many countries, clinical psychology is a regulated mental health profession.

The work performed by clinical psychologists tends to be influenced by various therapeutic approaches, all of which involve a formal relationship between professional and client (usually an individual, couple, family, or small group).

The various therapeutic approaches and practices are associated with different theoretical perspectives and employ different procedures intended to form a therapeutic alliance, explore the nature of psychological problems, and encourage new ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving. Four major theoretical perspectives are psychodynamic, cognitive behavioral, existential-humanistic, and systems or family therapy. There has been a growing movement to integrate the various therapeutic approaches, especially with an increased understanding of issues regarding culture, gender, spirituality, and sexual-orientation.

With the advent of more robust research findings regarding psychotherapy, there is evidence that most of the major therapies are about of equal effectiveness, with the key common element being a strong therapeutic alliance. Because of this, more training programs and psychologists are now adopting an eclectic therapeutic orientation.

Psychoanalysis

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From the 1890s until his death in 1939, the Austrian physician Sigmund Freud developed a method of psychotherapy known as psychoanalysis. Freud's understanding of the mind was largely based on interpretive methods, introspection and clinical observations, and was focused in particular on resolving unconscious conflict, mental distress and psychopathology. Freud's theories became very well-known, largely because they tackled subjects such as sexuality, repression, and the unconscious mind as general aspects of psychological development. These were largely considered taboo subjects at the time, and Freud provided a catalyst for them to be openly discussed in polite society. Clinically, he helped to pioneer the method of free association and a therapeutic interest in dreams.

Freud had a significant influence on Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung, whose analytical psychology became an alternative form of depth psychology. Other well-known psychoanalytic thinkers of the mid-twentieth century included German-American psychologist Erik Erickson, Austrian-British psychoanalyst Melanie Klein, English psychoanalyst and physician D. W. Winnicott, German psychologist Karen Horney, German-born psychologist and philosopher Erich Fromm, English psychiatrist John Bowlby and Sigmund Freud's daughter, psychoanalyst Anna Freud. Throughout the 20th century, psychoanalysis evolved into diverse schools of thought, most of which may be classed as Neo-Freudian.c

Psychoanalytic theory and therapy were criticized by psychologists and philosophers such as B. F. Skinner, Hans Eysenck, and Karl Popper. Skinner and other behaviorists believed that psychology should be more empirical and efficient than psychoanalysis—although they frequently agreed with Freud in ways that became overlooked as time passed. Popper, a philosopher of science, argued that Freud's, as well as Alfred Adler's, psychoanalytic theories included enough ad hoc safeguards against empirical contradiction to keep the theories outside the realm of scientific inquiry. By contrast, Eysenck maintained that although Freudian ideas could be subjected to experimental science, they had not withstood experimental tests. By the 21st century, psychology departments in American universities had become experimentally oriented, marginalizing Freudian theory and regarding it as a "desiccated and dead" historical artifact. Meanwhile, however, researchers in the emerging field of neuro-psychoanalysis defended some of Freud's ideas on scientific grounds,d while scholars of the humanities maintained that Freud was not a "scientist at all, but ... an interpreter."

History of psychology

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The study of psychology in philosophical context dates back to the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China, India, and Persia. Predating the prototypical clinics of Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung by nearly 1000 years, psychotherapy was performed by Islamic physicians on those with mental illness in lunatic asylums built as early as the 8th century in Fez, Morocco.

Due to his formulation of a modern quantitative and empirical approach, Ibn al-Haytham is considered by some authors to have pioneered the modern scientific method, as well as psychophysics and experimental psychology. In 1802, French physiologist Pierre Cabanis sketched out the beginnings of physiological psychology with his essay, Rapports du physique et du moral de l'homme (On the relations between the physical and moral aspects of man). Cabanis interpreted the mind in light of his previous studies of biology, arguing that sensibility and soul are properties of the nervous system.

Auguste Rodin's The Thinker

German physician Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research, for which Wundt is often known as the "father of psychology", at Leipzig University in 1879. The American philosopher and psychologist, William James, published his seminal book, Principles of Psychology, in 1890, laying the foundations for many of the questions that psychologists would explore for years to come. Other 19th-century contributors to the field include the German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus, a pioneer in the experimental study of memory at the University of Berlin; and the Russian-Soviet physiologist Ivan Pavlov, who investigated the learning process now referred to as classical conditioning.

Starting in the 1950s, the experimental techniques set forth by Wundt, James, Ebbinghaus, and others would be reiterated when experimental psychology became increasingly cognitive—concerned with information and its processing—and, eventually, constituted a part of the wider cognitive science. In its early years, this development had been seen as a "revolution", as it both responded to and reacted against strains of thought—including psychodynamics and behaviorism—that had developed in the meantime.